Ajam of Bahrain

Not to be confused with Baharna, the Shia majority indigenous people of Bahrain.

Bahraini Iranians
عجم البحرين/فرس البحرين (in Arabic)
پارسیان بحرین/ایرانیان بحرین (in Persian)

Iranian school in Bahrain 1939
Languages
Persian (Bahraini, Bushehri, Shirazi), Achomi/Khodmooni, Baluchi, Luri, Azeri, Ajami Arabic, Bahraini Arabic
Religion
Islam (Sunni, Twelver Shias, Bahais, Jewish, Christians, Non-religious (Atheists)
Related ethnic groups
Iranian diaspora (Iranians of UAE • Ajam of Bahrain • Ajam of Qatar • Ajam of Iraq • 'Ajam of Kuwait • Iranians of Canada • Iranians of America • Iranians of UK • Iranians of Germany • Iranians of Israel • Iranians in Turkey) Iranian Peoples (Lurs, Achomis, Baluchs, Kurds, Iranian Azeris), Turkic peoples (Qashqai, Azerbaijanis), Huwala

The Ajam of Bahrain (Arabic: عجم البحرین), also known as Persians of Bahrain or Iranians of Bahrain (Persian: ایرانیان بحرین), are a collection of ethnic groups in Bahrain composed of Bahraini citizens of Iranian ancestries and origins.

Most families are of a Shia background, although there is a number of Sunni families of Achomi and Baluchi ancestry as well. They are mostly bilingual.

The Ajam are found in significant numbers in Manama, Muharraq, and Shia majority areas such as Saar, Diraz and Samaheej. Both Samaheej and Diraz have their names derived from Persian.

Terms explained

• Persian: This label is more often used in English partly due to the fact that "Iran" was known in the western world as "Persia". In 1959, the government of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Reza Shah's son, announced that both "Persia" and "Iran" could officially be used interchangeably. In Bahrain, this term is used for and by anyone of Persian/Iranian roots both genetically and linguistically. Bahrainis of a Persian speaking/Iranian background use this term to refer to themselves. Musa Al-Ansari states that some people see this terms as just a term for Ajams from a Shia background (likely referring to Achomis) when in reality it isn't. Author Mehran Kokherdi states: The term Persians is currently used to refer to all groups with original Parsi roots, including the inhabitants of villages scattered across Persia who still speak their ancient Parsi language. However, the term has also come to describe the populations of major cities more broadly, who consist of a blend of various ethnic groups, all unified by their use of modern Persian—a language that incorporates elements from Arabic, Turkish, French, Russian, Mongolian, and Parsi. Based on their shared language, the people of Iran generally identify them as Persians (Arabic: فُرس; Furs, Farsi: فارس; Fars).
• Ajami (Plural: Ajam): The same general meaning of the term applies here, initially used to refer to those from a Persian speaking background locally, similarly to its historical use, however nowadays any non-Arab is referred to as an Ajam. Musa Al-Ansari states that this term originally referred to non-Arabs of a Persian-speaking (or derivative; i.e. Achomi) background as they were the only non-Arabic speakers in Bahrain, but due to the increase of other non-arab/non-arabic speaking ethnicities and people (such as Asians) he claims to have "reservations" to it due to its wide meaning. While some find this term to be derogatory due to its negative historical use context, some Sunni "Achumi" Iranians claim it is only for those of a Shia background, whilst they have been referred to as "Ajam" in the past, similarly to the situation in Kuwait, others don't reject or deny it.
• Race/Ancestry: The concept of race is surpassed with Ancestry, while in Arab culture the ancestry is often attributed to the father, scientifically speaking, the child inherits their maternal features more than their father’s; physical features such as hair color, hair texture, hairline, skin, and varicose veins are inherited from the mother. Daughters usually seen having equal inheritance from both parents while sons show high correlation with their mothers. Some Achomis of Sunni background in Bahrain mixed with Arabs, while some of those of Shia background mixed with Lurs and Bahranis as a result of sectarian politics.

Ethnic composition

See also: Demographics of Bahrain § Genetics

The Iranians of Bahrain are the descendants of immigrants who immigrated to this country in the 19th and 20th centuries (1800~2000 AD) from the southern provinces of Iran, including Fars province, Bushehr province, Hormozgan province, Kohgiluyeh and Boyer Ahmad province, Khoramshahr, Sistan and Baluchistan, and Lorestan.

The people of Iranian origins are made up of different ethnic groups, including, Iranian/Iranic peoples:

• Achums/Achomis (Persian: مَردُم اَچُمی): Iranian people's who migrated from the southern Iranian historical province known as Irahistan. Locally, they are referred to as “Khodmooni” (Persian: خودمونی); those with a Sunni background refer to themselves as "Huwala" (Arabic: هوله), who were also known as "Ajams," and those with a Shia background refer to themselves as "Ajam" (Arabic: عجم).
  • Bikhis (from Galadar)
  • Burdestanis
  • Lamardis: The people of Lamard speak Turkish, Persian, Luri, and a dialect mixed between Bushehri, Tangestani, Luri, Persian (Farsi), and Achomi.
• Baluchs (Persian: مَردُم بلوچ): The Baloch people trace their roots mostly to Makran coast, Kerman, Sistan and Baluchestan (Iran) province, with a new addition from the Pakistan and Afghanistan side of Balochistan. They are said to be fluent in Baluchi, Arabic and Farsi.
• Lurs (Persian: مَردُم لُر): from Ganaveh County and other areas of Bushehr, and Kohgiluyeh and Boyer Ahmad, and Lorestan. Some Lurs also go by the name “Ajam” locally.
  • Bakhtiaris
• Basseris (Persian: مَردُم باصری).
• Kurds (Persian: مَردُم کورد).

By origin location:

• Bushehr people (Lurs, Achomis, Qashqai, Ellamites, Jews, and a minority Arabs).
• Jahrom people (not to be confused with Achomis): The people of Jahrom are compromised of Fars, Basiri, and Qashqai.
• Kazerun (Kazerun) people: Fars/Pars.
• Shiraz people: Includes Turkmen.
• Bashagard: Balochkara, Baloch, Jats, Russians, Africans, and some Arabs.

Other groups:

• Turkic people

Qashqais.

• • Azeris.
  • Khuzestani Arabs (From Khorramshahr and Ahvaz)
• Hawala Arabs.
• Afro-Iranians: from Minab, Beshagard and possibly few from Bandar Abbas.
• Minabis (referred to locally as Al-Minawyah-الميناوية), who are indigenous to Minab.
• Balochkara: From Bashagard County. They speak dialects very close to Luri and Kurdish, which are naturally influenced by other Hormuzi dialects and Baluchi. As for what was transmitted by the stories, they are spread over very wide borders, and speak many dialects close to Luri and Kurdish, and they are mostly known as "Balochkara."
• Bahbahanis.

History

See also: Bahrain, History of Bahrain, and History of Iran

Iranian migration into Bahrain goes back to the days of the Sassanid and Achaemenid Persian empire, though in modern times there has been a constant migration for hundreds of years. There has always been a migration of Persian-speaking Shia into Bahrain.

Pre-Islamic period

Researchers claim that Bahrain was inhabited by partially-Christianized Arabs, Aramaic-speaking agriculturalists, Persian Zoroastrians, and a small amount of Jews.

Robert Bertram Serjeant, believes that the Baharna (Arabic: بحارنه) may be the last of the "descendants of converts from the original population of Christians (Aramaeans), Jews and ancient Zoroastrian Persians (Referred to as "Majus" by Arabs) inhabiting the island and cultivated coastal provinces of Eastern Arabia at the time of the Arab conquest".

The Christian sentiment is supported by Archaeology as Archaeologists uncovered a Christian church in Samaheej belonging to that period.

Islamic narrations claim that Bahrain was majorly a Zoroastrian population, before the Arab conquest, and that Mohammed took the Jizya from them.

The Bahraini population is said to have spoken Syriac and Persian (likely Middle "Pahlavi" Persian) at the time. Bahrain's old population is said to have also had a Persian clergy (Zoroastrians) who used Syriac as a language of liturgy and writing more generally.

Modern Migrations

It claimed that after the decline of the Safavid Empire (1501–1736), which was nearly destroyed by Pashtun armies, Persian Sunnis played a significant role in setting up Sunni governance in Bahrain. Persian Sunni (Achomi/Ajam) communities in Bahrain, alongside the Howala Arab tribes, took control of the island, establishing a Sunni-dominated rule.

It is claimed that Persians were settling in Hormuz and Bahrain at the time when there was a conflict between the Portuguese and the Persian Empire on ruling Bahrain, notably during the time of Nader Shah.

The number began to increase significantly in the year 1850, and due to the natural problems that the Iranian arena faced, such as lack of rain and due to waves of famine, cholera and smallpox outbreaks and increased crime rates, this led to immigration to a large-scale migration to Bahrain.Bushehri states that no one leaves his homeland, land, or clan unless they were forced to.

The period 1860-1910 is classified as the "first generation" migration by some. It includes places like Bushehr, Bandar Abbas, Bandar Langeh Mohammerah (Khorramshahr), and Lorestan.

In 1860, the Bushehri family migrates to Bahrain.

During the early 20th century, the Iranian central government imposed new import and export taxes, The introduction of taxes was an effort to reinforce the authority of the Iranian state and draw revenue from affluent peripheral areas like Bandar Lingeh and Bushehr, which were key economic hubs in the Gulf during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Migrants, familiar with the region, circumvented these restrictions by choosing alternative routes. To escape the heavy taxation, many merchants simply relocated to the other side, a practice that had been common for centuries due to the familiarity of the region, prompting the migration of tens of thousands of people from southern Iran to the opposite shores. Bahrain became a primary destination for these migrants, leading to a significant increase in its Iranian population. This period also saw heightened British involvement in the region.

In 1904, anti-Persian rioting broke out in the markets of Manama, marking the first recorded instance of local resistance against migrants in Bahrain. The British labeled the incident as "anti-Persian" and subsequently took control over the affairs of Iranian migrants in Bahrain. In response, the Iranian central government requested British assistance to ensure justice for its citizens in Bahrain. According to historian Stephenson, this request was a temporary measure rather than an attempt to permanently cede jurisdiction, reflecting the historically fluid and overlapping borders in the Gulf region.

According to Dr. Ali Akbar Bushehri, in the year 1905, the Ajam of Bahrain were estimated to be around 1650.

By 1909, the British who were treating Iranians as foreigners in need of British protection, had convinced the Sheikh of Bahrain (Isa bin Ali Al Khalifa) to oversee the Iranian migrants after spending five years of trying to convince him that they were foreigners, even though the Iranians (of Bahrain) themselves had not sought such protection. This shift marked the introduction of new territorialized identities in the Gulf, replacing earlier conceptions of belonging that were based on familial ties rather than geographic origin. The British court system reinforced this "spatial awareness", bringing a legal and official understanding of belonging that was increasingly tied to territorial boundaries. Despite the British designation of Iranians as foreigners, the Sheikh of Bahrain viewed them as part of his subjects, prioritizing their economic contributions over any concern about their origins.

Shaikh Isa bin Ali Al Khalifa (1848 – 1932)

In 1910, the local Iranian community funded and opened a private school, Al-Ittihad school (Persian: دبستان اتحاد ملی, romanized: Dabistan Ittihad Melli, lit. 'National Union Primary School'), that taught Persian, besides other subjects. It is considered one of the earliest, if not first, school to be opened in Bahrain. Between 1910 and 1919, in the absence of state-run schools on the islands, some Bahrainis attended Al-Ittihad, contributing to the development of modern education in the region. It had a secular approach influenced by the Pahlavi dynasty up until the 1979 Revolution.

Between 1919 and 1923, Members of the Iranian community asked the government to require teaching Persian (Farsi) as part of the curriculum in all schools but this was rejected.

Reza Shah, Shah of Iran from 1925 to 1941

Between 1920 and 1940, before World War II, more families migrated from Bushehr to Bahrain to avoid the on-going conflict between Reza Shah and the English.

In the 1920s, a wave of nationalism began to sweep through the ‘Ajam community in Bahrain, inspired by Reza Shah's rise to power in 1925 and his modernizing efforts, which promised to bring Iran closer to contemporary standards of living. By the late 1920s, the Iranian schools in Bahrain had intensified their nationalist activities to a controversial level. There was fear of the Persians in Bahrain. Anything that happens in Iran that is annoying to Bahrain or another side of the Gulf, the pressure is immediately put on Iranians living in Bahrain or the rest of the Gulf in general.According to the Persian newspaper Shafagh-i Sorkh ("The Red Sunset"), on December 5, 1928, the principals of these schools were summoned by the consul, who conveyed that playing drums and fifes was prohibited by the Bahraini government, and the Persian flag was not to be displayed on certain occasions.

Most modern migration of Iranians to Bahrain started around the year 1928, according to the oldest document they had in 2009, but this doesn't mean they didn't exist before this period, recounts Dr. Ali Akbar Bushehri.

During the 1930s, some conservative Sunni families have migrated from Iran to Bahrain due to the fear of Reza Shah imposed "Kashf-e hijab" law and what these families perceived as an "extreme secularism against religion" comparable to "Atatürk".

Iranian School in Bahrain 1939

In 1931, the two Iranian schools in Bahrain merged into a single institution named Madrase-ye Ittiḥād-e Mellī (also known as Ittiḥādi-ye Iranian or Ittiḥādiyeh), and continued to operate under this name until 1970. While the school's ownership was not officially transferred to the Iranian embassy until 1970, it had already adopted a strong Iranian nationalist identity by the late 1920s. By 1932, British sources described the Iranian school as a center of Iranian nationalism, with frequent parades where the Iranian flag was prominently flown and students were required to wear traditional Iranian hats.

Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran from 1941 to 1979

In 1941, Mohammed Reza Shah becomes the Shah of Iran.

During Bahrain's political strife in the 1950s, many Gulf Iranians began accepting Bahraini citizenship, as well as citizenship in the United Arab Emirates. Some segments of the community reportedly severed ties with their country of origin.

On 12 November 1957, Iran declared Bahrain a province, with two parliamentary seats dedicated to it (in the early 1900s, one parliamentary seat was reserved for Bahrain). A year later in 1958 Sheikh Salman bin Hamad Al Khalifa (ruler of Bahrain) pledged allegiance to Iran. One of his predecessors, Sheikh Muhammad bin Khalifah Al Khalifa had in 1851 asked for Iranian protection against Wahabbis and declared his preparedness to be a Qajar Iran protectorate. However, the British forced him to become their protectorate.

Despite the significant Gulf Iranian population in Dubai, pro-Iran demonstrations did not materialize during the dispute between Iran and the UAE over Abu Musa and the Tunb islands. When Emirati Arabs protested and destroyed Iranian property following Iran's repossession of the islands, UAE President Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan compensated the affected Gulf Iranians, who remained largely apolitical.

At 12:50 p.m. on March 26, 1970, London Radio announced that both Britain and Iran had submitted a request to the Secretary-General of the United Nations to send a representative from the international organization to survey the opinion of the people of Bahrain as to whether they wish to remain under British Protectorate or to have Independence or be part of Iran. Musa Al-Ansari recounts that he voted on the promise for the country to be an independent democratic country that respects minorities, "I went to vote as a Bahraini, but I do not want to lose my identity as a Persian."

By 1971, after Bahrain's independence, Gulf Iranians in Bahrain had become less overt in their nationalism. Across the Gulf, Iranian communities generally aligned their political and national activities with the interests of the indigenous Arab populations.

Post Revolution

See also: Islamic Revolution of 1979, Wahhabism, Pan-Arabism, Arab nationalism, Sectarianism, and Islamic extremism

After the Iranian Revolution, Gulf Iranians, including both Iranian-descended Bahrainis and expatriates, remained politically inactive, particularly during the Iran-Iraq War. This inaction, aimed at avoiding conflicts with Gulf governments, earned some enmity from Bahrain's Arab Shi’a community for perceived indifference to local grievances.

Dr. Bushehri recounts that the "Khomeini Revolution" created a rift between the Ajams of Bahrain. Majority of Bahraini Iranians were opposed to the Revolution, but they started supporting it over time. Mohammed Al-Qassab recounts "We were proud of the revolution because it overthrew the Shah. It removed from us the worry of ambitions and expansion. But we got in new labyrinths and greed of a different kind wrapped in revolutionary and religious slogans."

Throughout the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988), Gulf Iranians, especially in Dubai, played crucial roles in the region's economic life, regardless of their Shi’a background. Their focus on economic success rather than political activism became a recurring theme in observations of the community.

In 1993 the Persian "Isfahani Restaurant" was opened in Bahrain by two Persian brothers.

Between 1994 and 1999, the 1990s uprising in Bahrain took place in which leftists, liberals and Islamists joined forces to demand democratic reforms. Gulf Iranians refrained from addressing problems with the Bahraini government or engaging in inter-sectarian conflicts. Many were noted for their support of Gulf governments, countering claims that their loyalties might align strictly along sectarian lines.

After the Revolution in Iran, the Iranian School was renamed to "Islamic Republic School." At that time, the school was being funded and operated by the Iranian Ministry of Education. The 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran led to a shift in the school's ideological framework and curriculum. Prior to the Revolution, the school followed a secular approach influenced by the Pahlavi dynasty for nearly 70 years. For over seventy-five years, the school has provided education to multiple generations in Bahrain. In 1996, the "Iranian school" was shutdown by the Bahraini government.

In 2002, Bahraini's King, Hamad Bin Isa, announced many of the Ajams of Bahrain as Bahraini citizens and granted them citizenships.

In 2003, Khatami visited Bahrain which marked the first visit of an Iranian president to Bahrain since 25 years, Khatami gave a lecture in the Arabic language at the Gulf Hotel in Manameh. Bushehri recounts "The place was buzzing with Ajams, support, and prayers. Me and two of my friends were there. Everyone raises their voices in prayer except for us. For the first time, I felt that I had become a minority among a minority. Three people, a minority among 1,500.

The Bahraini people became considerably very religious after the 1979 events, and the Wahhabi movement in Saudi which was strengthened by oil exports, Musa Al-Ansari recounts: "I do not know why the revolution took this character in Bahrain. The fanaticism that exists in Bahrain does not exist in Iran. In Iran you will see people listening to music and songs, women in half-veils laughing in the street. Here you are an infidel if you listen to a cassette or hear singing. Bahrain is a completely different situation." Al-Qassab wonders, "where did we get all this fanaticism from?" to which Al-Ansari responds "From Islamic Extremism."

In the year 2009, the Iranians of Bahrain were estimated to be around 20% of the local population.

After the Saudi diplomatic missions in Iran were ransacked by Iranian protesters following the execution of Nimr al-Nimr, Bahrain followed Saudi Arabia's decision by severing diplomatic relations with the Islamic Republic of Iran.

In 2024, Bahrain restored diplomatic relations with the Islamic Republic of Iran.

Some of the new generation of Ajams of Bahrain do not identify much religiously and do not give attention to issues such as sectarianism or over religiosity, and rather view all their peers of different backgrounds as one.

Issues

See also: Human rights in Bahrain, Pan-Arabism, Arab nationalism, Sectarianism, and Islamic extremism

They accuse us of not having loyalty. What do they mean, that we have no loyalty? The aggressor will not differentiate between an Arab and a non-Arab. We must all defend this land. That brings us together.

— Nasser Hussein,

Ajams/Persians/Iranians of Bahrain could quite often face discrimination and racism, and their loyalty is always questioned. Sectarian conflicts following the Islamic revolution of Iran, 2011 events, along with Islamic extremism, attributed to divisions among the Ajams of Bahrain.

While students in Iran study Formal Arabic, Bahrainis of Iranian origin or ancestry (whatever their background) cannot study Persian (Farsi), or any Iranian language, the suggestion was made between 1919-1923 and ignored. Citizenship laws in the Gulf Arab states currently mandate prolonged residency and a satisfactory proficiency in Arabic as prerequisites for applying for citizenship. This can indefinitely extend the stateless status of many Gulf Iranians, particularly those facing linguistic or other challenges. This may explain why a lot of families of Iranian descent chose not to teach their children their ethnic language as a first tongue.

One of the key reasons behind the Bahraini government's promotion of an "Arab identity" framework among its population is to mitigate its deep-rooted historical ties with Iran and its Persian community (Ajam), as well as the indigenous Arab Shi’a (Baharna). The intertwined history of Bahrain and Iran, along with their respective peoples, dates back to at least the 5th century BCE during the Achaemenid Empire. Over the centuries, both regions have vied for control of the Gulf, with influence shifting back and forth since pre-Islamic times. Notably, during the Sassanian Empire, parts of the Arabian Peninsula and Iraq, now predominantly Arab-controlled, were once under Iranian rule. The Gulf Arab states have focused on cultural autonomy and preserving a distinctly Arabian and Islamic national identity, as evidenced by their national constitutions. Furthermore, the ruling families (in the Gulf) have set a precedent by removing all traces of their transnational connections from their national narratives. In the Gulf today, public discourse regarding the Persian, Indian, and African mothers of former shaykhs and shaykhas is heavily discouraged. Gulf nationals who cannot trace their ancestry to Arabian origins and tribal affiliations are typically excluded from high-ranking government positions, while those with no Arab lineage are often limited to the most junior roles. The notable exceptions to this trend seem to be Oman and, since 2000, Bahrain. Additionally, Shi‘i Arabs face varying degrees of discrimination depending on the state. Consequently, a historian relying on the accounts of a Gulf Arab family is likely to encounter a curated history that serves contemporary interests.

Shias in Bahrain or people of a Shia background in general (including Bahranis, and Shia Ajams) face discrimination, and are often called "Majoos", a term invented by Arabs for Zoroastrians; who are a minority today, often accused of "worshipping fire" as well, which is untrue as Zoroastrians worship "Ahuramazda" and the fire to them is as holy as the Kaabah is to Muslims). It is worth noting that the majority of Bahrain's Shia population are Bahrani people who are mostly (around 50%) eastern Arabs and (around 30%~) North West Asian (Iranian, Caucasian, and Mespotamian) according to their genes, and the two (Baharna and Ajams) can be often conflated by many. Many individuals, particularly those who view all Shias as 'Iranian Majoos,' also accuse them of being subservient to the Islamic Republic of Iran. It is important to note that this perception has been prevalent among some Sunni (Achum) Iranians, ultimately leading to unintended consequences for them. While it is noted that they were also known as "Ajam" in the past, The Sunni Ajams do not face such discrimination, and many of them identify as "Hawala" or Arab, and/or reject the term "Ajam." It is also noted that this group (the "Ajam" who later adopted the title "Huwala") introduced Nationalism during the heyday of Gamal Abdel Naser as means of fighting colonialism.

Since 1980s till mid 2000s, a lot of "Bidoon" Iranians have been deported back to Iran, many of which were working for BAPCO, the island's oil company, claimed to have been an attempt to open up more jobs for the native Bahraini population.

Based on a study in 2013, the researcher noted: the linguistic and religious situation of Sunni Persians in Bahrain is thorny and sometimes it is intentionally confused between "Hole\Hawala Arabs" and "Sunni Persians". The same study also claims that Sunni Achomis did not face any systematic racism. Some Sunni Achomis actively reject efforts to attribute Arab origins to their heritage.

In 2015, Al-Wasat columnist and journalist “Hani Al-Fardan” wrote an article in which he explained (indirectly) that a lot of people are getting in the fashion of changing their family names either for political or financial reasons, he explained “if one knew the original names and the names they changed to, they wouldn’t be surprised.”

In 2019, Dr. Abdullah Madani, writer of Al-Ayam newspaper and specialist in Asian affairs, describes in an article how a Bahraini of Persian origin once protested to him that he used his family name among the Ajams. Bahrain has brought. Madani had dedicated one of his articles to Bahrainis of Ajam of Iranian race and especially Shiites. In his article entitled "Kabir al-Ajam fe Al-Bahrain", he mentioned the name of "Akbari" family as one of the most famous Ajam families in Bahrain, along with the names of many other families. Ismail Akbari (husband of writer Sosan Al-Shaer and father of Bahrain Consultative Council member Bassam Ismail Al-Bon Mohammad "Akbari") strongly protested. In his opinion, the name "Ajam" refers only to Shias of Iranian origin, not to Sunnis, and his family, who are "Bastaki", not "Ajami".

In October 2024, the Arab Gulf States held their first joint meeting with the European Union in a considerable period. The meeting concluded with the EU affirming the position of the Gulf countries that the islands of Abu Musa, Greater Tunb, and Lesser Tunb are sovereign territories of the United Arab Emirates. This development provoked a response from the Islamic Republic of Iran, in which Kamal Kharazi, head of Iran's Strategic Council on Foreign Relations claimed Bahrain's Iranian/Persian identity. In response, members of Bahrain’s parliament rejected the claim, stating that Bahrain is historically Arab. and that Iran is merely trying to "export it's internal crisis." This included statements from MP Members of Iranian ancestry, such as Mohammed Hassan Janahi, who reiterated that "all Bahrainis firmly stand with their country’s Arab identity," Hesham Abdulaziz Al-Awadhi, who "affirmed Bahrain's Arab identity" and Mohamed Yousif Al-Maarafi who stated "Bahrain has been Arab since its founding." These statements reignited anti-Persian, anti-Iranian, and anti-Shia sentiments, with many resorting to the term “Majus” (مجوس) as a derogatory slur on social media. The specific target of this insult remains unclear, as the term has historically been used against Shias (including the indigenous Arab Baharna), Shia Arab Iraqis, Iranians, and even Bahrain’s Ajam community.

Languages

The Ajam speak southern Iranian languages and Persian dialects distinctive to the cities they have originated from:

• Bahraini Farsi (known as "Ajami" locally): This dialect is identical to Bushehri dialect of Farsi (also known as New Persian). It is spoken by people of Bushehri origin and some Achomis (particularly those of Shia background) too. Bahraini Farsi has two dialects:
  • Muharraqi (related to Muharraq).
  • Manami (related to Manamah).
• Achomi/Laristani: known as "Khodmooni" in Bahrain, and sometimes referred to as "Ajami" or "Holi", a branch of the old Pahlavi "Middle" Persian (Pārsīk). This is the original tongue and language of the Achomi people.
• Luri: a branch of Middle "Pahlavi" Persian (Pārsīk). Original tongue of the Lur people.
• Baluchi, a branch of Pahlavi and Parthian and on the other hand, it has near kinship to the Avestan. Original tongue of the Baluch people.
• Turkic languages: Azeri and QashqaiRelated languages:
• Bahraini Arabic (Distinct from "Bahrani Arabic" but with similarities): the main spoken Arabic dialect in Bahrain, both Bahraini and Bahrani have been influenced by local languages.

Below is a comparison chart of English, Modern Standard Arabic, Bahraini Arabic, Achomi, Standard New Persian, Bahraini/Bushehri New Persian, and Iranian/Tehrani New Persian:

Sentences

English	Modern Standard Arabic	Bahraini Arabic	Achomi	Standard New Persian	Bahraini/Bushehri New Persian	Iranian/Tehrani New Persian
What for?	Arabic: لماذا؟, romanized: lematha	Arabic: حگ شنو؟, romanized: hag sheno?		Persian: برای چه؟, romanized: baráye che	Persian: سی چه؟, romanized: Si cheh	Persian: واسه چی؟, romanized: vaseh che
Do you want water?	Arabic: هل تريد ماء؟, romanized: hal turidu ma'a?	Arabic: تَبي ماي؟, romanized: taby mai?		Persian: آیا شما آب می خواهید؟, romanized: Aaya shoma ab mekhaheed?	Persian: اُو مي خای؟, romanized: ow mikhay	Persian: آب میخوای؟, romanized: áb mikhái
He did not know what to do, suddenly he thought that he could go to the camel's home.	Arabic: لم يكن يعرف ماذا يفعل، فجأة فكر أنه يستطيع الذهاب إلى بيت الجمل., romanized: lam yakun yaerif madha yafeila, faj'atan fakar 'anah yastatie aldhahab 'iilaa bayt aljumli.		Persian: اُشنا فَمی چُنگ بُکُن، اِرانِ اَفِک کَت کِه اُ چی اَ خونَه ی دامونِ اُشتُری, romanized: oshna fami chong bokon, erani a fek kat ke oi chi akhonaye damone oshtori	Persian: او نمی دانست چه کند، ناگهان فکر کرد که می تواند به خانه شتر برود, romanized: u namidanast che konad, nagahan fekr kard keh metavanad beh khaney shetar beravad		Persian: او نمی‌دونست چیکار کنه، یهو فکر کرد که می‌تونه بره خونه شتر., romanized: ou namidanast che kar koneh, yaho fekr kard keh metoneh bereh khoney shetar
I told you	Arabic: أنا قلت لك, romanized: ana qulto laka	Arabic: آنه گلت لك, romanized: aaneh gelt lek		Persian: مَن بِه شُما گُفتَم, romanized: man be shoma goftam	Persian: مُو سیت (سی تو) گفتُم, romanized: mo seet goftum	Persian: مَن بِهِت (به تو) گُفتَم, romanized: man behet goftam

Words/Nouns

English	Modern Standard Arabic	Bahraini Arabic	Achomi	Standard New Persian	Bahraini/Bushehri New Persian	Iranian/Tehrani New Persian
Money	Arabic: مال, romanized: mal	Arabic: فلوس/بيزات, romanized: feloos/bizat		Persian: پول, romanized: Púl	Persian: پِیسه, romanized: peyse	Persian: پول, romanized: Púl
Food	Arabic: طعام, romanized: taam	Arabic: اكل, romanized: akel	Persian: خوراک, romanized: khorak	Persian: غذا, romanized: ghaza (from Arabic)	Persian: خوراک, romanized: khorak	Persian: غذا, romanized: ghaza (from Arabic)
Breakfast	Arabic: إفطار, romanized: iftar	Arabic: فطور/ریوگ, romanized: fotoor/reyoog	Persian: ناشتا, romanized: Nashta	Persian: صبحانه, romanized: Sobhaneh	Persian: ناشتا, romanized: Nashta	Persian: صبحانه, romanized: Sobhaneh
Lunch	Arabic: غداء, romanized: ghada'a	Arabic: غده, romanized: ghadeh	Persian: چاشت, romanized: Chasht	Persian: ناهار, romanized: Nahar (from Arabic)	Persian: چاش, romanized: Chash	Persian: ناهار, romanized: Nahar (from Arabic)
Socks	Arabic: جوراب, romanized: jurab	Arabic: دولاغ, romanized: Dolagh (from Achomi)	Persian: دولاغ, romanized: Dolagh ?	Persian: جوراب, romanized: Jurab (from Arabic)	Persian: دولاغ, romanized: Dolagh	Persian: جوراب, romanized: Jurab
Aunt	Arabic: عمة/خالة, romanized: ameh/khaleh	Arabic: عمة/خالة, romanized: ameh/khaleh	Persian: ببه/دامون, romanized: babeh/damon	Persian: عمه/خاله, romanized: ameh/khaleh		Persian: عمه/خاله, romanized: ameh/khaleh
Nose	Arabic: انف, romanized: anf	Arabic: خشم, romanized: khashem	Persian: پوز, romanized: puz	Persian: دماغ, romanized: demagh	Persian: پوز, romanized: puz	Persian: دماغ, romanized: demagh
Mouth	Arabic: فم, romanized: fam	Arabic: بوز, romanized: booz	Persian: کَپ, romanized: kap	Persian: دهن, romanized: dahan	Persian: کَپ, romanized: kap	Persian: دهن, romanized: dahan
Brain	Arabic: مخ/دماغ, romanized: mokh/demagh	Arabic: مخ/دماغ, romanized: mokh/demagh		Persian: مغز, romanized: maghz		Persian: مغز, romanized: maghz

Cultural Heritage

Music

See also: Sultaneez and Music of Bahrain

Sultaneez was a local Bahraini band that operated between 1989 and 2003, they are known for laying the foundation for "Bandari music," they have produced songs in Achomi (Bastaki dialect), Farsi, and Arabic. Their Bastaki song "Naz Akon Naz Akon" inspired by Yusuf Hadi Bastaki's folkloric song of the same name, is one of the most popular songs of this group. Kouros Shahmiri's song "Naz Nakon", which was released later (1998 AD), was inspired by Sultaneez's song "Naz Akon", which was released on June 25, 1990. Additionally, the song "Chai Chayi" by Koros was also inspired by the song of Soltaniz "Chayi Chayeem Kalam Dard Akon", which was released in 1989. Their legacy still lives on to this day, and many Bahraini Iranians listen to them to remember their roots.

Sultanies as they appear in their last Album "Aroosi" released in 2000

Other Bahraini Persian bands include:

• Al-Kawakib (فرقة الکواکب البحرینیة)
• Sharks (فرقة شارکس البحرینیة)
• Al-Ghuraba'a (فرقة الغرباء البحرینیة)
• Al-Danah (فرقة الدانة البحرینیة) - This group was composed of "Janahi" family members.
• Al-Salam (فرقة السلام البحرینیة)

Food

Achomi

Mahyaweh

• One of the notable local delicacies of the Achomi Persians in Bahrain is Mahyawa, consumed in Southern Iran (and specifically in Irahistan) as well, is a watery earth brick coloured sauce made from sardines and consumed with bread or other food.

Khanfaroosh

• Another one is Khanfaroosh, Khan (خان) meaning "House" and Foroosh (فروش) meaning "Selling," which translates to "Selling of the house." It has "Achomi" roots in southern Iran (particularly Hormozgan province).

• Another local "Achomi" delicacy is "pishoo" (Persian: پیشو) made from rose water (golab) and agar.

• Cham-Chamoo is a sweet naan that is made similar to Qeshm Island version.

Other

Other food items consumed are similar to other Iranian cuisine. For example, Kaleh Pacheh (Arabic: باجه, romanized: bajeh, Persian: پاچه, romanized: Pacheh) is very popular in Bahrain, in addition to Iranian Grills, Chello Kabab, and other National Iranian dishes.

Restaurants

Famous Iranian restaurants in Bahrain include "Isfahani" (named after Isfahan) and "Takht Jamshid" (named after a famous historical site in Persopolis).

Families

• Khonji/Al-Khonji
• Bastaki/Al-Bastaki
• Karmostaji
• Awadhi/Al-Awadhi
• Janahi/Al-Janahi
• Al-Ansari
• Galadari/Al-Galadari
• Kookherdi/Al-Kokherdi
• Kaziruni/Al-Kaziruni
• Ali Reza
• Almoayed
• Daylami
• Eshaq
• Fakhro
• Kanoo
• Kuhiji/Koheeji
• Matar
• Safar
• Al-Fardan
• Bushehri/Bushihri
• Diwani
• Farsi
• Sayigh
• Ahwazi
• Al-Zarb
• Aryan/Ariyan
• Beder
• Beljik
• Dawani
• Husayn Banna'
• Isfandiyar
• Ruyan
• Sa'ati
• Sharif
• Shekib
• Shirazi
• Dashti
• Rahimi
• Al-Qassab
• Jamsheer
• Bucheery
• Aseery
• Ma'rafi
• Jahromi
• Al-Balushi (Baloch)

Many of the previously mentioned families are of Persian origin based on historical records and the locations of their ancestral homelands. However, many choose to identify as Arabs to avoid discrimination or controversy. Ultimately, this often depends on the strength of their Persian cultural ties and the surrounding environment, which can lead to differing views within the same family about whether their heritage is Persian or Arab.

It is also common for these families to add "Al" (Arabic: ال), meaning "The," to their surnames to make them sound more Arabic. Some view this as abandoning or distancing themselves from their Persian roots, while others see it as a way to avoid racial issues. This shift is evident today, as many have adopted Arabic attire and now only speak fluent Arabic.

Contributions

Buildings

The Bādgir of the house of Shaikh Isa Bin Ali looks very similar to the older ones found in Southern Iran, likely introduced to UAE and Bahrain by Migrant Iranians from the South of Iran.

• The Achums likely introduced the wind towers (Badgir) to Bahrain and UAE.
• The Achums of Bastak, led by Sheikh Abdul Noor Al Bastaki, are credited with opening the first hotel in Bahrain. The Bahrain Hotel, still referred to by locals as ‘Abdul Noor’s Hotel,’ officially opened in 1950, although construction began as early as the 1920s. The Bahrain Hotel is set to undergo a revamp and makeover.

Linguistic influences

The Iranian languages has had the biggest foreign linguistic influence on Bahrani and Bahraini Arabic. The indigenous Bahrani dialect of Bahrain has also borrowed many words from Persian, for example:

• Chandal - woods used in constructing the roof of old buildings.
• Bādgir - towers with single or two, three or four sided openings above dwellings in order to let wind air into the building to create a current and hence cool the air inside the lower floor rooms. Now they refer to them as "Mulgaf" (ملقف) instead.
• Hast - Existing, for example Bahrainis sometimes say "Sh-hast?" (Meaning: What's up?).
• Bannad - He closed.
• Khosh - Good.
• Buuz - Mouth (noted to be from an older Iranian dialect).

Imported goods

• The migration of the Bushehri community to Bahrain led to a significant rise in the importation of certain goods, including books, rosewater, tea, and spirits, which distinguished them from the local Arab population.
• Persians in Bahrain are known and are famous in Bahrain for bread-making.

Husayniyya

See also: Muharram in Bahrain

Matam Al-Ajam Al-Kabeer in Manama

Matam Al Ajam interior, Fareej el-Makharqa

Matam Al-Ajam Al-Kabeer (Arabic:مأتم العجم الكبير) is the first Persian Matam and the largest such matam in Bahrain. It was founded in Fareej el-Makharqa by Abdul-Nabi Al-Kazerooni, a rich Persian merchant who was a representative of the Persian community in the council of the hakim Isa ibn Ali Al Khalifa. Himself an immigrant from the Dashti region of Iran, he single-handedly organised processions, collected donations and hired orators (Arabic: خطيب) to speak at the matam. Construction started in 1882 as a specialized building where Ashura, a holy day in Shia Islam, would be marked with processions, ceremonial flagellation and passion plays commemorating the death of Imam Hussain. The matam is still used for this purpose.

It was originally built with simple construction material such as palm tree trunks and leaf stalks. The matam was formally established in 1904 where it was decided that the matam would be renovated with rocks, clay and cement. Initially in the 1890s, the matam was primarily supported by Persian merchants, with two-thirds of the donation coming from the Bushehri and Safar family, respectively. For much of the 20th century, the matam had relied on yearly donations of money and land from rich and poor members of the Persian community and from waqf revenue. The matam also had an emergency relief fund that was to be distributed to the poor and to needy individuals; the matam provided financial aid and shelter to people following the collapse of the pearling market in the 1930s.

Upon the death of Abdul-Nabi Al-Kazerooni in 1927, Abdul Nabi Bushehri, himself a Persian immigrant from Bushehr and a well-respected figure in the Persian community, took control of the matam. Unlike his close friend, Bushehri ran the matam with other notables of the Persian community, forming a de facto board. Upon Bushehri's death in 1945, the board took over. In order to prevent confusion, the board appointed a specific member, Hasan Baljik, to act as key carrier to the matam and responsible for programs and budgetary issues. In 1971, an administrative board consisting of a president, vice president, secretary, treasurer and others was set up, all of whom were rich merchants.

Shia Ajams in Manama during Muharram parades (November 2014).

Names of Locations

In addition to this, many names of villages in Bahrain are derived from Persian, Bahrain's historical ties to Persian culture, particularly under the Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sassanian Empire, as well as influences during the Safavid rule (1501–1722), have left a significant impact on place names and cultural elements in the region. City and village names such as Manama, Karbabad, Salmabad, Karzakan, Samaheej, Tashan, Duraz, Barbar, Demistan, Karrana, Shakhura, Shahrekan, and Jurdab were originally derived from Persian, suggesting Persian influence on the island's history.

Current Name	Former Name	Persian root	Translation
Al-Manama (Arabic: المنامه)	Manamah	Man-Nameh (Persian: من نامه)	The name "Manāmah" was first recorded around the year 730 AH (approximately 1330 AD) during the visit of Turān Shah of Hurmuz to the island. At that time, it had already been annexed by his predecessor, Tahamtam II of Hurmuz. Derived from two words, meaning I and Speech. Originally it was called simply "Manamah" before being renamed to Al-Manamah. In Persian, "man" (من) means "me," and "nameh" (نامه) means "letter," similar to the structure of words like "Shah Nameh" (Book of Kings). Some claim that Al-Manama is actually derived from Arabic Al-Muna'amah (المنعمة) and its people were referred to as Almuna'ami; in the Shia book by Sayyed Mohsen Alameen "A'yan Alshia" (أعيان الشيعة) a Shi'a scholar from Manama or Muna'ama was mentioned Shaykh Ali bin Umran bin Fayad Almuna'ami Albahrani (شيخ علي بن عمران بن فياض المنعمي البحراني)
Al-Adliya	Zulmabad	Zulm Abad (Persian: ظلم‌آباد)	Like the name of a village in Gotvand County, Khuzestan, Iran – contrary to the original name, this place is not oppression, and it has become the city of lovers.
Al-Diraz (Arabic: دراز)	Diraz	Diraz (Persian: دراز)	Long. A village stretched along the coastline.
Busaiteen	Beseytin	Beseytin (Persian: بسیطین)	Similar to a name of a village in Khouzestan, Iran.
Al-Malkiya	Malchiyeh	Mal Chiyeh (Persian: مال چیه)	What is it (for)? - The locals still refer to it as "Malchiyeh." Furthermore, it is named similarly to village in Khouzestan.
Shahrakan (Arabic: شهركان)	N/A	Shahr-akan	Old Town
Karzakan	N/A	Karz-akan
Shakhura (Arabic: شاخورة)	Shahkhura	Shah-khora (Persian: شاه خورا)	آخور شاه (اصطبل پادشاه) Stable of Kings
Jurdab (Arabic: جرداب)	Gerdāb	Gerd-āb (Persian: گردآب)	Whirlpool
Salmabad (Arabic: سلماباد)	Selmābād	Selm-ābād (Persian: سلم‌آباد)	Would translate as "the peaceful settlement" or "the place of peace," with "سلم" (Salm) meaning "peace" and "آباد" implying a settled or prosperous area.
Karbabad (Arabic: كرباباد)	N/A	Karb-ābād (Persian: کرب‌آباد)	Would translate as "the settlement of sadness" or "the place of sorrow," as "کرب" (Karb) refers to "sadness" or "distress" and "آباد" again indicates a settled or inhabited place.
Dumistan (Arabic: دمستان)	Dabistan	Dabistan (Persian: دب اِستان)	The term "Dabistan" (دبستان) is a Persian word that typically means "school" or "place of learning." Dab (دب) refers to "learning" or "education." -stan (اِستان) is a suffix meaning "place" or "land of." So, Dabistan can be understood as "the place of learning" or simply "a school." While the last known location of Al-Ittihad school (Persian: دبستان اتحاد ملی, romanized: Dabistan Ittihad Melli, lit. 'National Union Primary School') is known to have been in Manama, it is possible that the school at some point may have been located here.
Al-Daih (Arabic: ديه)	Daih (Arabic: ديه)	Deh (Persian: دِه)	Village
Karrana (Arabic: كرانه)	Kerrāneh	Kerrā-neh (Persian: کرانه)	The Coast.
Barbar	Barbar	Bar+Bar (Persian: بار بار)	Bar Bar - Dobār (two times) - The word 'bar' may have been repeated to confirm the arrival of shipments or foreign cargo to the shore.
Samaheej (Arabic: سماهيج)	Samahīj	Se-māhi (Persian: سِه ماهی)	Three fish. On the origins of the name Samahīj, al-Bakri quoting others says: "Samāhīj is from Persian se (three) and māhi (fish) and hence, 'the three fish'." The sound change in the final "i < y" of the Persian form māhi is rather pronounced locally "-j" which is a phonetic feature known as "aj ajah" and ascribed to Qudā-ah tribes as in the word Tamīmi (a person belonging to bani Tamīm tribes) realized Tamīmij.

Notable people

• Abdulhussain bin Ali Mirza (Arabic: عبدالله حسين بن علي ميرزا) - current Minister of Electricity and Water Affairs of Bahrain
• Fatema Hameed Gerashi (Arabic: فاطمة حميد كراشي) - Bahraini swimmer
• Munira Fakhro (Arabic: منيرة فخرو), a prominent figure among Bahrain's Ajams community, faced oppression as her efforts for liberal and democratic reforms were overshadowed. Despite her advocacy, she was often ignored and demonized, while the public gave their support to Islamist political parties. This shift in support ultimately empowered Islamist factions over more liberal or democratic movements in Bahrain, sidelining her vision for a more progressive political landscape.
• Karim Fakhrawi, co-founder of Al-Wasat, considered one of the more popular newspapers in Bahrain by winning numerous awards
• Ghada Jamshir (Arabic: غادة جمشير) - Bahraini women's rights activist.
• Zainab Al Askari (Arabic: زينب العسكري) -Bahraini author and actress.
• Ahmed Sultan (Arabic: أحمد سلطان) - Executive Director – International Offices & Business Development (Manufacturing, Transport & Logistics) at Economic Development Board (EDB) and former Sultanies band lead singer.
• Sonya Janahi (Arabic: سونيا جناحي) - ILO Governing Body Member, IOE employers VP Asia, Bahrain Chamber Board Member, University of Bahrain Board Member, Franchise Expert, Keynote Speaker. Achomi, Sunni background.
• Khalid Fouad (Arabic: خالد فؤاد) - Bahraini Singer of maternal Achomi ancestry.
• Khaled Janahi (Arabic: خالد جناحي) - Chairman of Vision 3, Member of Bahrain Economic Development Board and former partner at Pricewaterhouse Coopers. Sunni background.
• Eman Aseery (Arabic: ايمان اسيري) - Bahraini Poet.
• Hossein Asiri (Arabic: حسين اسيري) - Bahraini Achomi singer who sings in Bahraini Arabic, Farsi and Achomi.
• Neyla Janahi (Arabic: محمد القصاب) - Bahrain TV Presenter. Achomi, Sunni background.
• Norah Al-Balushi (Arabic: نورة البلوشي) - Popular Bahraini Baluchi Actress, Sunni background.
• Hussain Javad Parveez (Arabic: محمد حسين جواد برويز) - Bahraini Activist.
• Ahmed Al-Bastaki (Arabic: أحمد البستكي) - Bahraini Artist.
• Hanan Redha (Arabic: حنان رضا) - Bahraini Singer. Achomi.
• Linda Janahi (Arabic: لِندا جناحي) - Chief of Corporate Services at Bahrain EDB. Achomi.
• Mohammed Al-Alawi (Arabic: محمد العلوي) - Chief of Marketing & Communications at Bahrain EDB.
• Redha Al-Ansari (Arabic: رضا الأنصاري) - Executive Director – Research at Bahrain EDB. Achomi.
• Dr. Ali Akbar Bushehri (Arabic: د. علي اكبر بوشهري) - historical researcher.
• Musa Al-Ansari (Arabic: موسى الأنصاري) - Secretary General of the Al-Ikha'a Association. Achomi.
• Youssef Amr Allah (Arabic: يوسف امرالله) - Administrative Member - Al-Ikha'a Association”.
• Jaafar Abdeen (Arabic: جعفر عابدين) - Member - Al-Ikha'a Association.
• Nasser Hussein (Arabic: ناصر حسين) - Member - Al-Ikha'a Association.
• Mahmoud Al-Qassab (Arabic: محمد القصاب) - Deputy Secretary-General of the National Rally Democratic Association.
• Samira Rajab (Arabic: سميرة رجب) - A Ba’athist political activist who identifies as a Bahrani Arab Ba’athist. Her mother is of Iranian descent, which may explain her Iranian-like appearance. She's known for her extreme pro-government role in the 2011 protests.
• Fatima Kaziruni (Arabic: فاطمة كازروني) - Bahraini host and actress.
• Shaima'a Rahimi (Arabic: شيماء رحيمي) - Bahraini media figure and actress.
• Mohammed Hassan Janahi - member of parliament.
• Hesham Abdulaziz Al-Awadhi - member of parliament.
• Mohamed Yousif Al-Maarafi - member of parliament.

Gallery

• 
  Sultanies band in their last Persian Album
• 
  Hussain Javad Parveez
• 
  Norah Al-Balushi (نوره البلوشي)
• 
  Wife of Ibraheem Sharif, former member of Waad.
• 
  Neyla Janahi
• 
  Sonya Janahi (سونيا جناحي)
• 
  Fawzia Abdullah Zainal
• 
  Khaled Janahi
• 
  Eman Aseery
• 
  Mohammed Falamarzi
• 
  Ahmed Al-Bastaki
• 
  Khalid Fouad
• 
  Hanan Redha
• 
  Samira Rajab
• 
  Fatima Kaziruni (فاطمة كازروني)
• 
  Bahraini actress and singer Haifa Hussain (هيفاء حسين)

See also

• Achomi people
• History of Bahrain
• Baharna
• Iranian diaspora
• 'Ajam of Kuwait

Further reading

• Between Modern and National Education: The ‘Ajam Schools of Bahrain and Kuwait
• Stephenson, Lindsey (2018). Rerouting the Persian Gulf: The Transnationalization of Iranian Migrant Networks, c.1900-1940 (PhD). Princeton University.
• Fuccaro, Nelida (2005), "Mapping the transnational community: Persians and the space of the city in Bahrain c.1869-1937", in Al-Rasheed, Madawi (ed.), Transnational Connections and the Persian Gulf, Routledge, pp. 39–74, ISBN 978-0-415-33135-7
• Nationalism in Bahrain: From the Rise of Popular Politics to the Arab Spring, Chelsi Mueller.
• History of the Persian race in Bahrain (Archived), Al-Waqt.
• McCoy, Eric. Iranians in Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates
  Migration, Minorities, and Identities (PDF) (Thesis thesis). The University of Arizona. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2024-09-04.

External links

• Matam Al Ajam Al Kabeer, officially recognised in 1881
• Matam Al Ajam Al Kabeer